What Is a Coup d’Etat Definition and Examples

A coup detat is the sudden, often violent overthrow of an existing government by a small group. The coup detat, also known as coup, is typically an illegal, unconstitutional seizure of power conducted by a dictator, a guerrilla military force, or an opposing political faction.   Key Takeaways: Coup d'Etat A coup detat is the illegal, often violent overthrow of an existing government or leader by a small group.Coups detat are typically conducted by aspiring dictators, military forces, or opposing political factions.Unlike revolutions, coups detat usually seek only to replace key government personnel rather than forcing sweeping changes to the country’s fundamental social and political ideology. Coup d’Etat Definition In his dataset of coups, University of Kentucky political scientist Clayton Thyne defines coups d’etat as â€Å"illegal and overt attempts by the military or other elites within the state apparatus to unseat the sitting executive.† As a key to success, groups attempting coups typically seek to gain the support of all or parts of the country’s armed forces, the police, and other military elements. Unlike revolutions, which are undertaken by large groups of people seeking sweeping social, economic, and political change, including the form of government itself, a coup seeks only to replace key government personnel. Coups rarely change a country’s fundamental social and political ideology, such as replacing a monarchy with a democracy. In one of the first modern coups, Napoleon Bonaparte overthrew the ruling French Committee of Public Safety and replaced it with the French Consulate on November 9, 1799, in the bloodless Coup of 18-19 Brumaire. More violent coups were common in Latin American nations during the 19th century and in Africa during the 1950s and 1960s as the nations gained independence.   Types of Coups d’Etat As described by political scientist Samuel P. Huntington in his 1968 book Political Order in Changing Societies, there are three generally recognized types of coups: The breakthrough coup: In this most-common type of takeover, an opposing group of civilian or military organizers overthrows the seated government and installs themselves as the nation’s new leaders. The Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, in which Russian Communists led by Vladimir Ilyich Lenin overthrew the tsarist regime, is an example of a breakthrough coup.The guardian coup: Typically justified as being for the â€Å"broader good of the nation,† the guardian coup occurs when one elite group seizes power from another elite group. For example, an army general overthrows a king or president. Some consider the 2013 overthrow of former Egyptian President Mohamed Morsi by General Abdel Fattah el-Sisi as part of the Arab Spring to have been a guardian coup.The veto coup: In a veto coup, the military steps in to prevent radical political change. The failed 2016 coup conducted by a faction of the Turkish military in an attempt to prevent what it considered Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan’s assault on secularism could be considered a veto coup. Recent Examples of Coups d’Etat While they have been recorded since about 876 BCE, significant coups d’etat continue to take place today. Here are four recent examples: 2011 Egyptian Coup d’Etat On Feburary 11, 2011, 30-year Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak resigned, launching the country into an era of reform. Monique Jaques / Getty Images Beginning on January 25, 2011, millions of civilians staged demonstrations demanding the overthrow of Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak. The protestors’ grievances included police brutality, denial of political and civil liberty, high unemployment, food-price inflation, and low wages. Mubarak resigned on February 11, 2011, with power handed over to a military junta, headed by the effective head of state Mohamed Hussein Tantawi. At least 846 people were killed and over 6,000 injured in violent confrontations between protesters and Mubarak’s personal security forces. 2013 Egyptian Coup d’Etat The next Egyptian coup detat took place on July 3, 2013. A military coalition led by General Abdel Fattah el-Sisi removed recently-elected President Mohamed Morsi from power and suspended the Egyptian constitution adopted after the 2011 coup. After Morsi and leaders of the Muslim Brotherhood were arrested, violent confrontations between Morsi’s supporters and opponents spread across Egypt. On August 14, 2013, police and military forces massacred hundreds of pro-Morsi and Muslim Brotherhood protestors. Human Rights Watch documented 817 deaths, â€Å"one of the worlds largest killings of demonstrators in a single day in recent history.† As a result of the coup and ensuing violence, Egypt’s membership in the African Union was suspended. 2016 Turkish Coup d’Etat Attempt People shout, gestures and hold Turkish national flags as they gather in Taksim square in Istanbul, on July 18, 2016 following the military failed coup attempt of July 15.   DANIEL MIHAILESCU / Getty Images On July 15, 2016, the Turkish military attempted a coup against President Recep Tayyip ErdoÄŸan and his Islamic secular government. Organized as the Peace at Home Council, the military faction was defeated by forces loyal to ErdoÄŸan. As reasons for the attempted coup, the Council cited an erosion of strict Islamic secularism under ErdoÄŸan, along with his elimination of democracy and human rights violations related to his oppression of the ethnic Kurdish population. Over 300 people were killed during the failed coup. In retaliation, ErdoÄŸan ordered the arrests of an estimated 77,000 people. 2019 Sudanese Coup d’Etat Sudanese supporters of the ruling Transitional Military Council (TMC) hold up a sign showing a portrait of its head General Abdel Fattah al-Burhan with a caption below reading in Arabic Al-Burhan, upon you is the trust, during a rally in the centre of the capital Khartoum on May 31, 2019.   ASHRAF SHAZLY / Getty Images On April 11, 2019, iron-fisted Sudanese dictator Omar al-Bashir was removed from power by a faction of the Sudanese military after nearly 30 years in office. After al-Bashirs arrest, the countrys constitution was suspended and the government was dissolved. On April 12, 2019, the day after al-Bashir’s overthrow, Lieutenant-General Abdel Fattah al-Burhan was sworn in as chairman of Sudans ruling Transitional Military Council and official head of state. Sources and Further Reference Definition of Coup dEtat www.merriam-webster.com.Powell, Jonathan M. (2011). Global Instances of Coups from 1950 to 2010: A New Dataset. Journal of Peace Research.Huntington, Samuel P. (1968). Political Order in Changing Societies. Yale University Press.Derpanopoulos, George. (2016). Are coups good for democracy? Research Politics. ISSN 2053-1680.

Alternative Learning System in the Philippines - 1642 Words

PHILIPPINE Alternative Learning System (ALS) AE Sunday, June 13, 2010 The Alternative Learning System (ALS) is a free education program implemented by the Department of Education (DepEd) under the Bureau of Alternative Learning System which benefits those who cannot afford formal schooling and follows whatever is their available schedule. The program provides a viable alternative to the existing formal education instruction, encompassing both the non-formal and informal sources of knowledge and skills. How does it work In ALS, students have to attend 10 months of school or 800 hours in the classroom. Then their performance are then assessed. Since ALS is a module-based learning system, students come in on a set time and choose a†¦show more content†¦Ã‚ · You should be ready with the required documents: your birth certificate, a certification from the school you last attended (if you previously went to school) that you were unable to complete the secondary level. 3. What level of Accreditation Equivalency (AE) is currently being offered at the eSkwela Centers? Currently, secondary AE (AE at the secondary level of education) is initially being offered at the eSkwela Centers. The elementary AE will be offered soon after the elementary e-modules are developed. 4. Is there a test I have to take in order to qualify as an eSkwela learner? Yes, the eSkwela Center will have you take a Functional Literacy Test (FLT), which will assess the actual level of education you have acquired. 5. Am I automatically accepted as an eSkwela learner if I already completed my elementary education? Your chances of acceptance as an eSkwela learner could be higher if you have already completed your elementary education, BUT you will still have to qualify through the FLT. 7. Do I need to know how to use a computer before I can be accepted as an eSkwela learner? 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Implementation of a Health Program Free Essays

The â€Å"American Cancer Society† has come up with â€Å"Guidelines on Nutrition and Physical Activity for Cancer Prevention† (American Cancer Society, 2008, pp. 1 – 11). The purpose of the aforementioned is to â€Å"reduce the risk of cancer† through â€Å"healthy food choices†, as well as, â€Å"physical activity† (American Cancer Society, 2008, pp. We will write a custom essay sample on Implementation of a Health Program or any similar topic only for you Order Now 1 – 11). The guidelines provided addresses questions of countless individuals who are quite confused by â€Å"several studies or news reports† which are not usually peer-reviewed or not really â€Å"official† (American Cancer Society, 2008, pp. 1 – 11). Although answering the questions would help greatly, this program of the â€Å"American Cancer Society† should still undergo a process of implementation so that people will be motivated to look deeper into the guidelines, as well as, to practice them in order to â€Å"reduce the risk of cancer† (American Cancer Society, 2008, pp. 1 – 11). Before these guidelines are to be fully implemented, there are certain factors needed to be considered (American Cancer Society, 2008, pp. 1 – 11). Some of these factors are the following: 1) leading the implementation; 2) time frame; 3) staff qualifications; 4) staff responsibilities; 5) training; 6) supervision/support; 7) funds; and 8) advocacy (American Cancer Society, 2008, pp. 1 – 11). Leading the Implementation It is very important to assign an individual to â€Å"lead the implementation† (Illness Management and Recovery, 2003, pp. 1 – 6). The leader should be well aware of the program or guidelines and should have mastered all aspects of the guidelines (Illness Management and Recovery, 2003, pp. 1 – 6). He or she should also be supported by those in a higher position, as well as, respected by the subordinates (Illness Management and Recovery, 2003, pp. 1 – 6). Time Frame After a leader is chosen for the implementation, â€Å"time-frame† should also be settled (Illness Management and Recovery, 2003, pp. 1 – 6). This entails the time needed in training those who will play a role in the implementation of the program (Illness Management and Recovery, 2003, pp. 1 – 6). For instance, three months is required to extensively educate and motivate the individuals who will play a part in the implementation (Illness Management and Recovery, 2003, pp. 1 – 6). How to cite Implementation of a Health Program, Papers

Analyze Nonfinancial Information And Their Impact On The Economies

Question: Discuss about the Nonfinancial Information And Their Impact On The Economies. Answer: Introduction The process of business reporting is an important aspect for the business organizations as it helps the stakeholders of the organizations know about the business operatic and financial position about the companies (Council, 2014). During the past two decades, several initiatives have been taken to improve the process of business reporting for the businesses. One such step is to disclose more nonfinancial information of the organizations in the annual report. The reason of doing so is that investors all over the world are considering the nonfinancial information of the organizations at the time of investments (Dhaliwal et al., 2012).). Hence, one cannot ignore the growing importance of nonfinancial information of the business organizations. It can be seen that there are different kinds of nonfinancial information in the business organizations that have significant impact on the economic aspects of the businesses. The main aim of this report is to analyze and evaluate the various aspec ts of nonfinancial information and their impact on the economies. Identification and Discussion of the Nature of Nonfinancial Information In the business era of twenty-first centuries, Nonfinancial Reporting is one of the major concepts. Nonfinancial Reporting, commonly known as Sustainability Reporting refers to the process of disclosing the nonfinancial data and information of the business organizations. In a business organization, different kinds of nonfinancial information are there. They are corporate social responsibility reporting; environment, social and governance (ESG) reporting: environmental reporting: social reporting: green banking disclosures and others. The nature of these aspects is discussed under: Corporate Social Responsibility refers to a specific corporate management approach that helps in the application of various sustainability values in the business organizations. The main objective of corporate social responsibility reporting or CSR reporting is the promotion of social welfare in the business organizations and outside the business organizations. The process of corporate social responsibility in the organizations assists in the employment of various ethical business concepts and supports in the preservation of the nature in which the business organizations operate (Cheng, Ioannou Serafeim, 2014). Another important nonfinancial reporting factor is Environmental, Social and Governance Reporting (ESG Reporting). As per the recent tread all over the world, the investor all over the globe are considering the environmental, social and governing factors in the annual reports of the organizations as material factors in the process of investment decision-making. ESG deals with a wide range of impacts on the investment factors. Some of the major issues that ESG deals with are change in the business regulations, various business ethics, operational strategies and many others (Murphy McGrath, 2013). The next nonfinancial factor is the process of environmental reporting. Environmental reporting refers to the production of narrative as well as enumerative information on the different kinds of environmental initiatives of the business organizations. The narrative information in the process of environmental reporting is used to provide explanations and reasons to fail in the environmental initiatives against the previous years (Bouten, Everaert Roberts, 2012). On the other hand, numerical environmental disclosure is needed for the reporting of various types of environmental initiatives. Another most important aspect is the process of social reporting. Social reporting is the process of the reporting of some major activities of the business organizations that have significant effects on the society and environment. On a more precise note, social reporting is the process of reporting and measuring the information that has impact on the society (Hys Hawrysz, 2012). There are differen t kinds of business activities of the businesses that have negative impacts on the society. Hence, it is the responsibility of the business organizations to report all these activities along with the impact of them in the annual reports. Another important aspect is the process of green banking disclosures. The main objective of the policy of green banking is to protect the earth from various environmental calamities like global warming, increase in carbon emission, scarcity of natural resources and others. The policy of green banking has become vastly popular all over the world (Bahl, 2012). Identification and Discussion of the Nature of Economic Consequences In the business organizations, both financial and nonfinancial information have their own significance. In this process, one can simply not ignore the impact of nonfinancial information on the economic factors like the debt market and the capital market. There is a deep relationship between the stock prices and the sentiment of the investors. Various nonfinancial events affect both the capital and debt market like macroeconomic releases, environmental changes all over the globe and many others. It has been seen that inventors all over the world are considering the various news of the companies regarding the nonfinancial information at the time of making the investment-decision (Cohen et al., 2012). The investors are considering the fact that this nonfinancial information has the power to affect the debt as well as capital market. There is not any place to doubt the fact that financial reporting has a significant importance on the economic factors of the organizations. However, lookin g at the growing importance of the various sustainable and environmental factors, the nonfinancial information and the nonfinancial reporting are playing significant part in the economic aspects of both the investors and the companies. It can be seen that business organizations having effective sustainable reporting procedures have shares with higher prices and their shares are trading on an effective basis. The reason is that people all over the world have started taking the various environmental aspects seriously. Hence, it can be said that nonfinancial information has impacts on the economic aspects like the capital and debt market (Dhaliwal et al., 2012). Reporting Procedures of Nonfinancial Information Business organizations need to follow certain structure, framework and regulations at the time of the reporting of nonfinancial information. GRI is one of the major frameworks that is followed all over the globe for the reporting of nonfinancial information. Another major principle that is followed at the time of reporting the nonfinancial information is the Account Ability AA1000 Principle Standards 2008 (AA1000APS). It can be seen that there is an important update in the GRI framework and it has converted to GRI-G3 framework. This latest framework has been useful for the organizations to support the sustainability reporting of them. Apart from the GRI framework, certain principles are there for the reporting of nonfinancial information. The principle of inclusivity states that the business organizations should be accountable to the stakeholders for disclosing all the nonfinancial information of the business organizations. In this regard, AA1000APS is an important aspect. The next p rinciple if materiality (Bhaduri Selarka, 2016). The materiality principles state that the nonfinancial information need to be material and hence, they should influence the in the process of investment decision-making. As per the principle of responsiveness, it is the responsibility of the organizations to provide accurate and dependable nonfinancial information to its stakeholders. As per the principle of completeness as per GRI-G3, the provided nonfinancial information to the stakeholders of the organizations needs to be complete in nature. Apart from the principles, another most important aspect is assurance. As per ISAE 3000 and AA1000APS 2008, the nonfinancial information needs two types of assurance (Simnett, 2012). They are reasonable or high assurance and limited or moderate assurance. Based on the nature of the nonfinancial information, the level of assurance is provided. These are the major components of nonfinancial information reporting that are needed in the reporting process. Integration The above discussion states that the disclosure of nonfinancial information has become a major requirement for the business organization. There are different procedures of disclosing the nonfinancial information of a business organization; they are corporate social responsibility reporting; environment, social and governance (ESG) reporting: environmental reporting: social reporting: green banking disclosures and other. The main objective behind all these reporting procedures is to properly disclosed the nonfinancial information of the organizations. All this nonfinancial information has massive impact on different economic factious like the debt market, capital market and others. It can be seen that the investor of the companies put a close view on the sustainability reporting of the business organization as the nonfinancial information plays an important role on their investment decision-making process. This is the reason the share prices of the organizations depends on the disclos ure of the nonfinancial information. Hence, it is the responsibility of the business organizations to follow all the required principles and framework at the time of reporting the nonfinancial information. The organizations need to follow the GRI-G3 and AA1000APS 2008 framework for the reporting of nonfinancial information. The required principles in this regard are inclusivity, materiality, responsiveness, completeness and others along with necessary assurance. Conclusion From the above discussion, it can be said that the process of the reporting of nonfinancial information for the business organizations is a major aspect that has impact on the economic factors of the organizations. It is the responsibility of the organizations to disclose all the nonfinancial information to the potential investors as they play an integral part on the investment decision of the investors. Hence, the business organizations need to comply with all the principles and with the necessary framework for the reporting of nonfinancial information. This process is beneficial for both the organizations and their stakeholders. References Bahl, S. (2012). Green banking-The new strategic imperative.Asian Journal of Research in Business Economics and Management,2(2), 176-185. Bhaduri, S. N., Selarka, E. (2016). Corporate Social ResponsibilityGuidelines and Best Practices. InCorporate Governance and Corporate Social Responsibility of Indian Companies(pp. 33-42). Springer Singapore. Bouten, L., Everaert, P., Roberts, R. W. (2012). How a Two?Step Approach Discloses Different Determinants of Voluntary Social and Environmental Reporting.Journal of BusinessFinance Accounting,39(5?6), 567-605. Cheng, B., Ioannou, I., Serafeim, G. (2014). Corporate social responsibility and access to finance.Strategic Management Journal,35(1), 1-23. Cohen, J. R., Holder-Webb, L. L., Nath, L., Wood, D. (2012). Corporate reporting of nonfinancial leading indicators of economic performance and sustainability.Accounting Horizons,26(1), 65-90. Council, F. R. (2014). Guidance on Risk Management, Internal Control and Related Financial and Business Reporting. Dhaliwal, D. S., Radhakrishnan, S., Tsang, A., Yang, Y. G. (2012). Nonfinancial disclosure and analyst forecast accuracy: International evidence on corporate social responsibility disclosure.The Accounting Review,87(3), 723-759. Dhaliwal, D. S., Radhakrishnan, S., Tsang, A., Yang, Y. G. (2012). Nonfinancial disclosure and analyst forecast accuracy: International evidence on corporate social responsibility disclosure.The Accounting Review,87(3), 723-759. Hys, K., Hawrysz, L. (2012). Corporate social responsibility reporting.China-USA Business Review,11(11). Murphy, D., McGrath, D. (2013). ESG reportingclass actions, deterrence, and avoidance.Sustainability Accounting, Management and Policy Journal,4(2), 216-235. Simnett, R. (2012). Assurance of sustainability reports: Revision of ISAE 3000 and associated research opportunities.Sustainability Accounting, Management and Policy Journal,3(1), 89-98.

Transcendentalism in Civil Disobedience Essay Example

Transcendentalism in Civil Disobedience Essay Dannheisig 1 Jan-Hendrik Dannheisig Susanne Hamscha, M. A. Re(dis)covering America: Emerson, Thoreau, and American Democracy 10 April 2012 Transcendentalism in Civil Disobedience Thoreaus Politics of Individuality and Nature Dannheisig 2 Contents Introduction 1. Transcendentalism a. Nature b. Introspective Conscience and Politics 2. Political Individualism a. Ethical and Political (In)justice b. Critique of Democracy Conclusion Bibliography 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Dannheisig 3 Introduction Henry David Thoreau was part of a movement called American Transcendentalism. To illuminate Thoreaus understanding of democracy, political action and justice this paper will focus on the influence transcendentalism had on his ideas and ideals in his essay Resistance to Civil Government better known as Civil Disobedience. Mostly found in his naturalist writings like Walden, The Maine Woods or his journals, Thoreaus transcendental influences shape his political writings just as much. In Thoreaus thinking there is an underlying dichotomy between nature and artificial social constructs, like governments or churches. This dichotomy is the basis for his distrust in majority rule and mindless compliance with laws by the public. Thoreau focuses on an individualized responsibility for ones actions by declaring only introspectively found truths a sufficient basis for ones conscience and therefore ones actions. This is where transcendentalism is found in his argumentation. The transcendental approach to all of reality is through introspection, finding knowledge and truth in ourselves instead of in empirical experience or law. We will write a custom essay sample on Transcendentalism in Civil Disobedience specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Transcendentalism in Civil Disobedience specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Transcendentalism in Civil Disobedience specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Thoreau incorporates this idea of introspective conscience into a framework of political realities, like slavery in the United States at the time or the Mexican-American War. This application of a highly philosophical understanding of reality onto complex political problems during the time is the reason Civil Disobedience received so much attention. Thoreau makes the case for more individual reflection and his stances are strongly critical of majority rule. He questions the legitimacy of governments that create unjust laws, acceptance of slavery being the prime example of injustice. He believed that humans are innately good and that only society, with its artificial social constructs, corrupts them. In the following chapters I will show how transcendental influence is the underlying for all his politically crass positions and analyze their implications. Dannheisig 4 1. Transcendentalism Transcendentalism is a philosophy of individualism and individualism is the ground of American thought. 1 The New England movement of American Transcendentalism, led by Ralph Waldo Emerson, arose in the 1830s and 1840s, as a response to cultural and societal developments towards materialism and intellectualism. Transcendentalism can be linked to Romanticism in its disdain of rationalization of nature. Critical of industrialization both movements focus on reorientation towards the natural experience, unaltered by societal ambitions like greed or, to create norms and rules for wholesome living. Ralph Waldo Emerson wrote in his influential essay The Transcendentalist in 1842: The Transcendentalist adopts the whole connection of spiritual doctrine. He believes in miracle, in the perpetual openness of the human mind to new influx of light and power; he believes in inspiration, and in ecstasy. He wishes that the spiritual principle should be suffered to demonstrate itself to the end, in all possible applications to the state of man, without the admission of anything unspiritual; that is, anything positive, dogmatic, personal. Thus, the spiritual measure of inspiration is the depth of the thought, and never, who said it? Transcendentalism contrasts materialism and idealism. Losing faith in their identity many of the growing elite saw developments of brutal expansion, class stratification by means of industrialization, urbanization and the consequentially following conflict as unbearable and not in coherence with their beliefs. The right to rule, politically and culturally, given to the elite by presumptions of racism and classism, seemed outdated by upcoming working-class radicalism. 2 The civil commotion during this period of economic transition towards a regime of industrialization and away from traditional Jeffersonian agrarianism gave way to social movements that rethought the focus the American society should concentrate on. One of these social movements was Transcendentalism. Transcendentalists devoted their energy towards the conquest of cultural authority and they achieved it in many ways. The Transcendental Club, as the public referred to the gathering organized by Emerson and Thoreau included influential literary participants like Elizabeth Peabody, Margaret Fuller, Orestes Brownson, William Henry Channing and occasionally Nathaniel Hawthorne (who himself was not a transcendentalist). They defined themselves as a group of liberal minded individuals who share the common believe that the way to establish principles of human brotherhood and democratic equality was to 1 2 Newman, 35 Newman, 39 Dannheisig 5 reestablish ones individual relationship to the divinely ordained laws of nature. 3 The disconnect in culture and socioeconomic conditions between workers and capitalists was so troubling to this group that different utopian experiments grew out of this discontent, one of them being Thoreaus residence in Walden Pond, another being Brook Farm. This was a project started by George and Sophia Ripley, to create a community where manual work and leisure would be equally sha red and therefore create a peaceful and balanced community where everyone could choose to do the work he or she saw the most pleasure in, therefore destroying some of the unnatural structures society had implemented them with, like division of labor. The project was financially unsuccessful and eventually failed when some of the buildings burned down. 4 The Transcendentalist movement did not have one direction that it followed but was by definition only in agreement over the fact that nature is the remedy to societal disfiguration. To transcend societal restraints means to refocus on what the real and natural behaviors and convictions are. The easiest way to understand what is natural to a Transcendentalist is to comprehend what is not. To Emerson secularization and the development of fascination with science and the intellectualism that grew with it bore dangers to the individual and its personal formation. A development away from the individual experience of ones surroundings and towards the study of empiric studies would create structures of knowledge that are unquestioned by its students who believe that only what is written is true. Roles imposed on the individual by society and its institutions impeded individual expression and freedom, restricted choice, and ultimately resulted in self-alienation. 5 A lot of the influence that formed transcendentalist thought came from Romanticism. The understanding that sense is more important than intellect and passion more important than reason was at the core of Romanticism. The natural form of behavior could only be found in absence of societal reasoning. This train of thought goes back to Kant, who argued that knowledge was found in the subjectiveness of human thinking, rather than in the objects of experience. Anything valuable to know is what an individual has personally and subjectively encountered and actual knowledge is only formed through this subjective perception. 6 3 4 Newman, 42 Crowe, 161 5 Bingham, 19 6 Bingham, 20 Dannheisig 6 In the following chapters I will elaborate what is meant by nature and use examples from Emersons and Thoreaus writing to explain their different approaches. I will then continue to explain what introspective conscience entails and how this translates into Thoreaus politics. a. Nature Nature, in a way, is just as much a metaphorical concept as it is an actual reality when it comes to Transcendentalism. Metaphorically, nature is the absence of the negative effects of society. Literally, nature is the physical world surrounding us, and moreover life itself. Emerson wrote in his influential essay Nature, which basically brought Transcendentalism to life: When we speak of nature in this manner, we have a distinct but most poetical sense in the mind. We mean the integrity of impression made by manifold natural objects. It is this which distinguishes the stick of timber of the wood-cutter, from the tree of the poet. He defines nature as the metaphorical influence the literal impressions of nature have on a person. Nature is all that is separate from us, all which Philosophy distinguishes as the NOT ME, that is, both nature and art, all other men and y own body [ ]. 7 Nature is the source of influence, where the individual finds truths. Emerson goes on to explain that physical laws of nature translate to laws of moral nature as he sees God in nature. Thoreau was highly influenced by Emerson and the essays Nature and The American Scholar essentially encouraged Thoreau to his stay at Walden Pond and his continuous transcendental endeavors. An other influence on Thoreau was Rousseau. Rousseau was interested in the natural man, meaning the individual without influences from society. Both, Thoreau and Rousseau agreed that in a natural state, humans were good and only society altered that characteristic. 8 To study and understand the laws of nature and to experience it will, in Thoreaus understanding assist anyone in individual self-realization and thus create social-change. His analysis of the natural surroundings of his house in Walden allow the conclusion that Thoreau believed the understanding of natural behaviors were essential to a functioning human society, more so than the modern institutions the Transcendentalists so strongly despised. 7 8 Emerson, 80 Bingham, 21 Dannheisig 7 b. Introspective Conscience and Politics The morality Thoreau presents in Civil Disobedience arises from the higher law that he can find in nature. As I explained above, only in an environment of natural subjectivity, when societal pressures and ideas have been lifted, man can return to his natural goodness. To get to this point a fair amount of distance from society is necessary. This is what Thoreau was practicing when he went to Walden Pond and this is where he wrote Civil Disobedience. In Thoreaus mind, the individual is responsible both for uncovering these higher laws of nature and for employing them to evaluate and direct his conduct. Disagreements and moral conflicts within a community of people living in accord with these laws are impossible: as nature is harmonized, so too will be the conscientious actions derived from natural observation. 9 Thoreau also explains that once an individual has discovered a moral truth about a subject, or as he would call it a natural law, he has to abide by it. In his view, to know of a moral or higher law creates an obligation to obey it. This can obviously entail political action as many a truth can form a situation that does not apply to it, and therefore needs to be altered. Thoreau is, however, widely received as a passive theorist when it comes to political action. In Civil Disobedience he explains that It is not a mans duty, as a matter of course, to devote himself to the eradication of any, even the most enormous wrong; he may still properly have other concerns to engage him; but it is his duty, at least, to wash his hands of it, and, if he gives it no thought longer, not to give it practically his support. This argumentation basically states that anyone can claim moral high ground as long as they do not take part in the crime or injustice. There is, however, a problem with this reasoning as ones experienced liberties and socioeconomic circumstances might be enabled by the unjust system. If Thoreaus position as a scholar and free citizen is supported by a regime that also assists in slavery, is he not taking part in that injustice? And, as we have seen above, is he not obliged to obey the natural law and therefore take action against the injustice? 10 Thoreaus conviction on his introspectively found truths, which he states include slavery as unjust, therefore create a moral obligation. But does it also create a political obligation for action towards change? In the next chapters I will illustrate how this quagmire between moral and political obligations plays into his definitions of justice and Thoreaus strong critique of democracy. 9 10 Jenco, 359 Turner, 450 Dannheisig 8 2. Political Individualism Thoreau sees Americans as shortsighted. The political arena is thoughtless and ill-considered as it is controlled by processes and structures that support immediate reaction over contemplation due to power struggles and election cycles. This regime of fast-paced decision-making is the norm and all the laws that come through this system are part of this norm. Since, however, this system is democratically elected it possesses legitimacy to rule. Thoreau questions this legitimacy when he declares that righteous behavior can only come from individual introspection and not from established laws and norms. When Thoreau decides not to pay his taxes because of his inner conviction that he cannot be a part of an injustice (in this case, supporting a government financially that assists in slavery) he breaks the law, but he also breaks the norm by questioning and evaluating a governments performance through personal perception and then acting on these evaluations. While Thoreaus writings are meant to influence others into adopting the transcendental approach towards morality, his concepts overall aim is to improve the individual instead of the community. Individualists main concern is for themselves, so that their opinions and behaviors are steady and consistent. This inner behavior however, can translate into external actions, like enabling freedoms for others and effect reform. The individualists conscience is formed introspectively but he, generally speaking but also Thoreau specifically, has principles that are generalizable and also conform to universal values and political ideals. 11 Overall, Thoreau despises political conformity but values liberty and justice and conforms to them, if present. His intention was to stand outside institutions and illustrate how conscience has consequences but not necessarily take part in the political games because he, as mentioned above, disliked the political arena and its continuous structures, to say the least. Transcendental influence can strongly be identified here as the desire to create your own structures and not only continue the work of precursors is one of the main ideas proposed by Emerson in his speech American Scholar. Not only does Thoreau see his moral obligations not constructed by laws and societal norms but by his introspection, but he also does not see the 11 Rosenblum, 83 Dannheisig 9 political realm as the utmost important arena. His individualism goes so far that the improvement of himself actually becomes much more important to him than the transformation of society. 2 a. Ethical and Political (In)justice To Thoreau there was one ultimate sin: slavery. This sin is assisted by the government that therefore creates instant need to be acted disobedient against. To understand why slavery is sinful we can look back at Emerson again, who, stating that once societal influences have been stripped off an individual he or she will live by simple moral guidelines that are only con nected to natures laws. For this to happen, though, a person needs freedom: freedom from sin and freedom from oppression. Emerson disliked all systems of oppression and his main objective was the proliferation of individual mental emancipation. Thoreau, also agreeing with the principles of individual liberty and being a supporter of self-discovery of higher laws after stopping to participate in sinful behavior, logically opposed slavery. It has to be taken into account that this abolitionist sentiment in the transcendental movement was not necessarily coupled with the believe that all African-Americans should have the same rights or even be a bigger part of American society. The strongest cases for Thoreau against slavery was the sin a slave-holder performed, which kept him from introspection, as well as the limits imposed on slaves which kept them from experiencing nature without constraints. Basically anything that kept an individual from experiencing nature is ethically unjust. Political injustice, for Thoreau, is something else. Thoreau was the one that coined the term the government is best that governs least and his thoughts on governmental systems can be described in a variety of ways from libertarian to individual anarchist. 3 Drawing back to Transcendentalism, individual experience of nature forms natural laws, which a person has to obey. Any form of government that imposes different laws than the ones already in place by the process of introspection therefore acts oppressive and therefore unjust. 12 13 Bennett, 5 Jenco, 381 Dannheisig 10 b. Critique of Democracy Having established in the chapters above that Thoreaus conviction of individual con sciousness is paramount to his understanding of a functioning society and taking into account that only he subjective relationship one has with nature can lead to the discovery of natural laws, or morals, one can easily deduct that democracy is not a form of government that works well in this mindset, or most forms of government for that matter. Democracy is majority rule. This by itself already runs against the idea of Thoreaus disconnection of widely accepted norms. Any form of social construct that is agreed upon by the majority is unnatural by definition as it underlines the absence of uninfluenced experience. This questions Thoreaus compliance with democracy even before taking into account what he proposes in Civil Disobedience. In Civil Disobedience Thoreau explains the necessity of denying to pay a special tax for the funding of the Mexican-American War. Thoreau argues that he cannot be part of the evil that is the government that wants to go to war with Mexico to proliferate the slavery system. In denying to pay this tax, he commits a crime. This crime, taken only as an action by one highly moral person, is not a big deal. Thoreau knows the consequences of his action and therefore decides to impose his own values over the one governments therefore making a policy decision by claiming non-participation in one specific area of governance. By doing so he basically denies the democratic legitimacy of the government. If this behavior is acted out by all Americans then representative elections become unnecessary as every topic is decided by the public either sponsoring it financially or not. The implications can go even more dramatic as immediate underfunding of the government will lead to government shut down and therefore might induce instability and revolution. The term civil disobedience has a very positive and peaceful connotation today because civil rights leaders all over the world have applied it by redefining it as peaceful protest and by abstaining from any evil doing. However, Thoreaus approach of refusing to pay taxes in a democratically elected government shows his prioritizing of the individual over the community. While any decision the group/community/society makes is vulnerable to civil disobedience, Thoreau argues that the natural laws are universal and in a world where everyone achieved introspection only the natural laws would be necessary. Dannheisig 11 Conclusion Transcendentalism runs through Thoreaus political thought like a silver lining. Every aspect of his argumentation in Civil Disobedience can be traced back to his understanding of what truth is. Thoreau believes that individual perception of nature is the answer to the hard transitions of economical regime change towards industrialization, enlightenment and slavery that challenged America during the mid-19th century. Thoreau approach towards these problems is through the act of civil disobedience, where one resists taking part in an evil deed acted out by a government. In his case he denies to pay a tax supporting an upcoming war that he doesnt agree with. This act of disobedience, can be seen as a show of discontent or as encouragement for revolution, depending on the depths you plan to theorize with. After analyzing the text thoroughly, my conclusion is that Thoreau was antidemocratic and protectionist about his local surroundings. His essay tries to explain truth and moral and its obligations in a comprehensive approach regarding everyone but it misses the opportunity for an explanation on how to realistically transform a society by these standards. If he had taken a bigger approach towards societal transition his work could have become much more influential as a political theory, as it already includes a social contract theory and recommendations for the size of a government. I will conclude this paper with a quote from Civil Disobedience that summarizes his tone, his political drive and his strains of militancy: Under a government which imprisons any unjustly, the true place for a just man is also a prison. where the State places those who are not with her, but against her,– the only house in a slave State in which a free man can abide with honor. †¦ Cast your whole vote, not a strip of paper merely, but your whole influence. A minority is powerless while it conforms to the majority; it is not even a minority then; but it is irresistible when it clogs by its whole weight. If the alternative is to keep all just men in prison, or give up war and slavery, the State will not hesitate which to choose. If a thousand men were not to pay their tax bills this year, that would not be a violent and bloody measure, as it would be to pay them, and enable the State to commit violence and shed innocent blood. This is, in fact, the definition of a peaceable revolution, if any such is possible. Dannheisig 12 Bibliography Arendt, Hannah. Crises of the republic. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973. Bennett, Jane. Thoreaus nature: ethics, politics, and the wild. Thousand Oaks: Sage, 1994. Bingham, Shawn Chandler. Thoreau and the sociological imagination: the wilds of society. Lanham: Rowman Littlefield Publications, 2008. Crowe, Charles. George Ripley: Transcendentalist and Utopian Socialist. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1967. Emerson, Ralph Waldo. The conduct of life: nature and other essays. London: J. M. Dent, 1915. Felton, R. Todd. A Journey into the Transcendentalists New England. Berkeley, California: Roaring Forties Press, 2006. Jenco, Leigh Kathryn. Thoreaus Critique of Democracy. The Review of Politics Vol. 65, No. 3 (Summer, 2003): pp 355-381. Newman, Lance. Our Common Dwelling: Henry Thoreau, transcendentalism, and the class politics of nature. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005. Rosenblum, Nancy. Thoreaus Militant Conscience. Political Theory Vol. 9, No. 1 (Feb. , 1981): pp 81-110. Taylor, Bob Pepperman. Americas bachelor uncle: Thoreau and the American polity. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1996. Thoreau, Henry David. Walden, civil disobedience, and other writings. New York: Norton, 2008. Turner, Jack. Performing Conscience: Thoreau, Political Action, and the Plea for John Brown. Political Theory Vol. 33, No. 4 (Aug. , 2005): pp 448-471.

Dreams in Of Mice and Men Essays

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The Background To Social Constructivism Theory Sociology Essay This essay will firstly describe the origins, background and history of the Social Constructionism theory and how it is linked to Social Constructivism. Secondly, the essay will show how this theory affects the way sexuality is viewed and explained. The essay will also show how other aspects such as religion and culture play a key role in sexuality and then examine some of the early sexual reform movements. Finally, it will focus on some modern developments and influences that continue to shape our sexuality in the modern contemporary. In sociological theory of knowledge there is also social constructivism. This term refers to general philosophy in constructing knowledge in social settings where groups collaborate and create small shared culture and shared meanings (Vygosky, 1978). Social constructivism is a theory that is closely linked to social constructionism in a way that in both theories people work together in constructing artifacts. Social constructionism refers to artefacts that are created depending on the social interaction of a group whilst social constructivism address the individual learning that takes place in interactions in a group. The word Social Construction was derived from social constructuctionism by (Berger and Luckmann, 1967) who were the first sociologists to use this word in 1966 when they wrote the book called The Social Construction of Reality. They argue that the word is made up of ordinary common sense. This was quickly followed by Foucault in the 1970s who describes Social Constructi onism as related to human sexuality. According to Berger and Luckmann (1967) social construction has the main features such as typification, institutions and significations. This notion is not only about worldly things but it profoundly affects the way we believe, think, our values attitudes and the way we behave. This means to say that our knowledge is socially constructed and is the centre which defines how the world is. Although sexuality has a diverse meanings Carroll (2007) describes it as mating rituals to create ideas, customs, laws, art and fantasies, around the sexual act. She suggests that generally, sexuality is also a term that determines the feelings and behaviour of human beings in relation to sex. Oakley (1985) describes sexuality as a reproductive aspect that focuses attention on shared functions on humanity by cultural tolerance. According to Oakley sexuality is recognized by power and vitality with some political advantages that accumulate to any man by desirable calibre of spreading his seed far afield and therefore creating many branches of his decent line through different sets of children. In other words, sexuality is learned from culture, family, romantic partners, friends and within the context of society as a whole as well as from other sources. On the hand biological theories of sexuality emphasizes that it is fixed by nature and a strong link between hormones to chromosomes, brain anatomy, genetic patterns due to inborn that differentiate women and men. Bristow (1997) argues that the concept of sexuality is deeply embedded by sexual functioning, ovulation, pregnancy, conception, hormonal release and birth that are controlled by physiological. However, (Butler, 2004) Sexuality refers to natural distinctions in a cultural meanings and social forms which both there is a function of norms. Ones sexuality how to become or know your sexuality it depends on the modes in which is dispossessed. Wittig cited in (Butler, 2004) argues that sexuality is categorized in different ways, some psychologists like Fred tries to attempt it as an issue of genital organized sexuality. This type of sexuality referred to Lesbian who do it as an economy of pleasures which will both challenge the construction of female subjectivity marked by women supposedly distinctive reproductive function. However, this was a construction of proliferation of pleasures through reproductive construction of genitality. Cameroon and Kulick (2003)define reproductive sexuality as a bridging nature and culture that clearly manifest gender between these two dichotomies. Witting cited in (Butler, 2004) describes the lesbian body as sexually constructed since this is subj ective to sex, desire and transforming of gender identity. Heterosexual was considered the only normal which Butler (2004) argues that model of normalization of heterosexual diffuse antigenital sexuality and ignores hegemonic structure of sexuality. In the 19th century during Victorian times sexual practices were kept secret, very confined only regarded in home environment. Sexuality was taken as custody and engaged on in the purpose of reproduction. For example during this modern era time the women status of sex was determined by the way of dressing (Butler, 2004). She points out that married women were only allowed to wear long skirts and there was no clothing worn during their childhood and even in their pre-adolescence. Butler (2004) argue that women sexuality was constructed through sexual status by demonstration of their previous clothing. For example short skirts resembled as a sign of previous sexual experience among women. Women were considered to be very royal and honest after marriage (Butler, 2004) Foucault (1990) argues that during this time everything beyond outside household was regarded as abnormal only gestures, open transgressions and shameless discourse where bodies were displaying themselves was allowed as a norm of the society. Oakley (1972) points out that subordination of women originated from the masculine conception regarding woman, and raised some ideals, norms that strongly influenced women behaviour in lacking power in challenging male view of women sex. Through patriarchy the suppression of women has continued and through social construction the role of women developed into that of the weaker sex who has suffered a lower status than men in society. The social theorists such as Wolkwtiz (2006) describes the construction of sexuality as shaped through bodies by individuals and their identities. In addition to this feminist point out that female body are taken as body of embodiment. Foucault (1978) argues that culture so dominating in influencing sexual desire rather than biological sex drive in human being. However, Feminists theorist believes that the choice on individual sexuality is most influenced on our ideas from the society. They believe that social construction of sexuality is based on power that man has authority for a number of centuries. Oakley (1997), argues that sex identity, gender identity and gender role only show conformity and two possibilities of the identity of masculinity as dominance over femininity. She went on to say that therefore no one was born being as homosexual. In addition, the feminist also outlined that sexual gender inequality is the major issue in subordination of women and being seen as sexual objects by men, which result in sexual aggression such as rape and sexual abstinent. According to Butler (2004) argues that sexuality is socially constructed by the way women are treated, societies have different view on women, their bodies are seen as objects that are suitable to abuse, pornography, sexual harassment and prostitution. The feminist movement has given rise to a large body of theory which attempts to explain sexuality inequalities and set forth agendas for overcoming those inequalities. The major strands of feminism in the west during the twentieth century were liberal, socialist or Marxist and radical feminism. These feminist theories in relation to sexuality contrast markedly with one another. They sought to explain sexuality inequalities through variety of social process, such as sexism, patriarchy and capitalism (Faulcout, 1978). The feminists argue that male sexuality constantly views sex like an act that only men perform on the body of a women involves that invo lves erection of penis and penetration into women vagina. This only supports dominance of men over womens body that resulted from the way society constructing sexuality on human beings. Sexuality as well underwent the same epistemological shift. Postmodernism, in fact, invites to consider sexuality not as a biologically constituted and naturally determined entity that confine the possibility of action and existence of human beings, nor as a place where the true self is kept, but as a plastic entity manufactured by and within the language: sexuality thus is socially and discursively constructed as well. However the Liberal and the Radical Feminists argues about heterosexuality regime in the society. They describe it as a socially compulsory regime that dissipated and masks the existence of women that result in undermining solidarity among women in facing subordination. Some Sociologists such as the Liberal and Radical feminists both argue that heterosexual is related to social constructionism and triggered for instance social violence upon women. They also argue that the distinctive categories of man and women form dangers to construction analysis (Johnson, 2005). The sociologists believe that society plays a vital role in influencing different sexual behaviors in societies. Carroll (2007) argues that family is one of the major factors which influence values for human sexuality. She believes that the construction of sexuality in contemporary societies is mainly emerged through male dominance. Culturally, in modern societies, male sexuality is being viewed as an act that involves mal e genital as having power over women genital and without these men genital do not have power. Sexuality is more shaped by human values and beliefs towards power through engagement of sex. Therefore, there are some negative and positive learned behaviors that women and men do to their sex roles in the society. Butler (2004) believes that construction of sexuality in society emerged through erection of male organ and denial of female orgasm. Our parents and family give strong influential messages about the norm of the societys view of sexuality. Family microsystem also influences how a society views sexuality (Beasley, 2005). In addition, Carroll (2007) argues that family views women as they are naturally born for reproduction and sex is not meant pleasurable for them. According to Butler (2004) criticize the concept of sexuality in a family because it considered all other sexual behaviors as being abnormal, immature and not suitable for human life. Butler (2004) mentions that in fami ly structure women are not allowed to seek any knowledge regarding sex. The ideology of private nuclear family such as the father, mother and children has also seen as social construction and male sexuality dominating. For example in Muslim Families, Women should be dressed in demeanor and long dresses. The feminist believes that social construction of sexuality is based on the power of mens Foucault (1979) identifies religion as a deconstructing theme which influences women in participating sexual activities. He outlines that female sexuality has been internalized in the negative view of their life experiences and social cultural constructions. Foucault (1979) argues that the institutional and structural sources of female sexuality is derived from womens sexual meanings and this impact women lives. Religion was seen as major influential on the construction of female sexuality because it explores sexual attitudes behaviors in marriage relationships. Beasley (2005 ) argues that religion do not prevent premarital sexual behaviors among human but it only enables religious men and women to become inactive in practicing masturbation. He emphasizes that masturbation is a fulfillment of sexual desire by practicing intercourse through oral stimulation of genitals and this is mostly done by inactive religious people. Judaism Islamic heavily argues that Biblical any practice of ma sturbation is regarded as a sin which produce guilt and shame. Johnson, (2005) argues that Christian religions impose beliefs on women that their sexual roles in the society are only to fulfill family desires and needs. These feelings make women inferior and seen being trapped in patriarchal structure of society. Foucault, (1992) claims that such as the Jude- Christian tradition portrays women as objects for the perpetuating mens use. Carroll (2007) mentions that during Victorian era Christianity viewed sexuality only as reproductive activity that only done for pleasure. For example there are two ideologies driven from the Puritans Christianity culture that construct sexuality. One is the Machismo which resembles the superiority of men sexuality over women. Biblically, this means that women should be submissive to their husband and the husband is considered as the head of the family. The other one is the Marianismo that is based on the model that was played by Mary the mother of God . Carroll (2007) claims that women according to their sexuality should accept the superiority of husband as Gods will as it has been done by Mary. Beasley (2005) argues that church is an institute that constructed for female to perform their sexualities according to religious beliefs in patriarchal society. The economy also plays a pivot role in influencing the beliefs and values of societies view of sexuality (Bayer, 1997). He suggests that capitalism like the U.S economy is deeply concerned about the exchange of the services with money. This gives a potential rise in some related sex services such as pornography, sex shops and prostitution. Bayer (1997) outlined that pornography is one of the human activities in the construction of sexuality. Foucault (1978) also argues that the human activity such as sex workers is also dominating in the construction of the notion of sexuality and commodification that conceptualizes selling of sex as normal. Pornography is the stigma which has a social meaning in disciplining womens sexual behaviors in the western world Foucault (1984). Butler (2004) maintains that women sexuality in sex selling is exposed in terms of dressing sexy, nakedness and dancing and these social behaviors can make them attractive and identity is mostly created by sexual perf ormances. She claims that selling of sex signifies the objectivity women body in their sexuality. In addition Butler (2004) identifies that the decorative object materials such as fingernails polish, stripped toothpaste, earrings and necklaces are seen as decorative labour for women in construction of their identity and put a boundary between male and female sexuality. However, the Postmodernism, consider sexuality as naturally determined and constituted in the existence and action of human beings where there is no truth of self but confined in the entire plastic. Moore and Zuccarini (2009) suggest that pornography resulted due the economy of well-developed countries such as U.S.A, Britain where women from poor countries are trafficked for sex. This view is supported by Johnson (2005) who views the construction of sexuality through the means of graphic sexually exploitation and subornation of women thorough words and pictures in imitation of their bodies. Beasley ( 2005) argues that the sexuality of human sexuality such as women are more of dehumanization of their bodies, they are seen as sexual objects, presented in body parts such as buttocks, limited to vaginas, breasts, they present pleasure in rape. Media is a primary source which constitutes parts of international and national industries with related superficial reports on prostitution and trafficking women (Dorwkin, 1981). He went on to say that this result in the objectifying of femininity and sexuality images among women. Dorwkin (1981) argues that media portrays the femininity sexuality give a powerful perpetuation dominant power structures to masculinity. Bayer (1987) also argues media such as magazines, mahogany has some photographs that construct images of femininity and female sexuality which produce fantasizing desires and pleasures in a limited way. Carroll (2007) argues that media plays a vital role in shaping the public opinion, interests and directing hearts and mind of the public in sexual political realm. Bayer (1987) also argues that medias representation of characteriscs of homosexuality during their publication is not fully expressed and it does not show fully homosexual characters and it only expresses this i dea as normal to the public. Dorwkin (1981) also claims that media behaves in a way the society deems appropriate. For example the lesbians shown on national television media do not show there real characters. Dorwkin (1981) went on to say the absence of a performance of lesbianism is not simply the absence of lesbian sex, but the absence of any representation of lesbianism as a factor that it encourages the society to lesbian identity.  The invisibility of lesbianism character not only allows heartbeat to avoid any substantial portrayal of an experience outlawed by the dominant patriarchal discourse, but to obscure homophobia. Bristow (1997) suggest that the invisibility of lesbianism supports patriarchal values by removing the need to confront the homophobia and heterosexist/sexism that visible lesbianism signifies. He went on to claim that the sanitization for public consumption is always prevalent with the exception of when they do show gay characters, they are usually portray ed in a stereotypical, feminine fashion such as Nathan Lane in the movie. For example, the Birdcage or with the stigma of the gay man with AIDS, such as Tom Hanks in Philadelphia.   Johnson (2005) identifies that continuing prevalence of stigmatization and stereotyping of those considered deviant serves to maintain status and control of power the notion of heterosexuality as the norm of the society. However, Moore and Zuccarini (2009) argue that media contribute to the process of commodification of sexuality and promote cultural stereotypes around sex work even through their ostensibly disapproving reports on trafficking. They are different cultures which are also seen in the contributing to construction of human sexuality such as, transsexuals, cross-dressers, transvestites, intersex individuals those born with ambiguous genitals Carroll (2007). Some surgical techniques were performed in the construction of their gender and sexuality. Sex reassignment surgery was developed to help bring transsexuals biology into line with their inner lives. Carroll (2007) points out that construction of sexuality on transsexuals depends on the interests, values and the individuals beliefs on being recognised a as being male or female. Moore and Zuccarin (2009) draw attention to the distinctive categories of female and male genitals which are constructed and the use of silicone implants in creating breasts. They claim that the artificial constructions of the genital organs motivate the beliefs to those who recognise it as a fulfilment of their sexuality. Joseph (2009) also claims that some other cultures like the Pers ian Gulf country of Oman transsexual they undergo ritual castration where all their parts of genitals are removed and they believe this gives them special powers to bless male children. In addition to this Joseph ( 2008) also points out that in the contemporary culture, language such as the pornified messages are communicated through print and electronic media which a being seen as sexual liberating. Moore and Zuccarini (2009) argues that liberation of sexuality is only intimate part of humanity and its liberation expression can only be fulfilled and empowered and there is a major different experience in todays culture which result in capitalist commodification of sexuality in the whole society. Weeks (2000) also argues that the concept of bio power by Foucault which relate to power constructed by industrialisation in supporting cultural hegemony in capitalism. He emphasis that biopower is strongly linked to bio politics construction of sexuality and it regulates human sexuality int o categories. The medical community also influences how a society views sexuality. For example, many years ago physicians taught that masturbation was a disease that could lead to permanent mental illness. This attitude influenced societal opinions of masturbation. Other behaviors in which physicians urged people not to engage included anal intercourse, extramarital sex, homosexuality, and bisexuality. Societys values about these behaviors were guided by the medical communitys attitudes and beliefs. A fifth influence that regulates sexual behavior in the United States is the law (Carroll, 2007). The law establishes what sexual behaviors are officially right and wrong. For example, laws regulate the availability of certain contraceptive methods, abortion, and certain sexual behaviors. Laws help establish social norms and influence societal attitude. To conclude, many sociological issues contribute to the construction of categories of sexuality and gender identity in our society.   The primacy of masculinity versus femininity, the categorizing of deviants as abnormal or needing psychiatric treatment, and the role of power in American society all contribute to explaining and understanding the role of deviance in our society.   There are also several tools that serve to maintain, enforce, and reinforce these categories, but the strongest uniting factor is the imputation of negative status for that which is deviant.   Foucault (1984) argues that we should avoid applying terms of behaviour to individuals.   Rather than using terms such as heterosexual and homosexual to describe persons, we should use them in describing the nature of overt sexual relations. I think he posed this idea in light of conducting objective, unbiased research and the realization that the use of these terms was too restrictive and limiting to character ize a person based on their sexual behaviour.   From a deeper point of view there is lot of evidence that there are so many factors that contribute in the determination on how society feels about sexuality.  

The American Dream vs The American Myth :: Essays on the American Dream

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  After being stuck en route for an enormously long period of time, would you think that the destination had better be worth all the time spent getting there? Many people would say yes. Think about it. If you were on a journey which lasted months, possibly years of your life, you would want to arrive at your destination seeing the same thing you had dreamt of during the trip. What if, when you got there, you discovered that the dream was actually a myth? The American settlers discovered just that. Is this not similar to High School? Everybody has a specific view, or dream, of High School that very first day they walk in as a freshman. How often is this dream a realistic one?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Take, for instance, the first settlers in Jamestown. These people came solely for capitalistic purposes. They figured that if they developed settlements, they would surely profit. With this goal taking over all others in their minds, they did not survive. Many factors contributed to this. For example, the settlers were not prepared for the new area. They believed that they could walk right in and succeed. What they did not realize, however, is that they needed to prepare more. They settled on a horrible piece of land, which killed many off due to sickness. They weren’t able to take care of themselves, as they figured that the Indians would provide cheap labor. The settlers were proved wrong, as the Indians rebelled against the Europeans in raids. Settlers in Jamestown were not prepared for America, thus leading to their downfall. High School can be directly related to Jamestown. Every year, many freshmen catch themselves doing a complete turn-around soon after the year begins. Freshmen usually split into different cliques soon after High School starts. These cliques are usually groups of people with similar interests, whether it is fashion, sports, or math club. All through Middle School, the children were guided along by the administration. This leads them to believe that High School will be the same way. Once in High School, many feel lost and unprepared. The first day of High School, many freshman get to the lunch room, sit at their tables, and wait to be called up to the lunch lines. They were pampered all through their earlier schooling, so they figured that they would be told when to go eat.

Ancient Rome and Romans

Rome vs. Greece Which of the city-states do you think was the better civilization? There are many difference and similarities between these city-states. Both are the most honorable ancient cultures in Western culture. Greece and Rome had fought many battles, but those battles only made them stronger. Both had their own ways of life and political views as a civilization, and these ways varied incomparably. While Greece had many artistic achievements, Rome focused on creating and improving a unified empire. Therefore, both have different ways of making their civilization remembered by the people of today.The first difference in Roman and Greek civilization is their geographical features. Rome had a better chance to unify its people because of its location. Rome is located at the center of the Italian peninsula. It was easier for Rome to keep control of its neighboring areas. Rome gained control over the areas surrounding the Italian peninsula by conquest and by providing Roman citizens hip for the conquered people. The residents of the Italian peninsula classified themselves as Romans during the Punic Wars, and then it led to the creation of the unified Roman Empire.On the other hand, Greece’s mountainous terrain separated several Greek city-states from one another. The expansion of the Greek civilization all over the Mediterranean basin was just an increase of detached Greek city-states. The detachment of the Greek city-states prevented Greece from creating its own empire. The Athenians’ plan of creating an empire by the domination of the Delian League backfired, by leading to the Peloponnesian Wars. The Romans adopted many characteristics of the Greeks to its culture. However, there are still many differences between their cultures.The Romans translated the names of the great gods of the Greeks into its language, so it will be more Roman-like. For example, the Roman name of the Greek god Poseidon is Neptune. The Romans’ religion is more sole mn than the Greeks. The Romans believed that good or bad luck came from the gods, depending on what the gods were feeling. If they were happy it means good, however, if they were unhappy then bad luck would come to the Romans. The Romans worshipped Jupiter Optimus Maximus. They got the idea of wearing togas from the Greeks too.During the Roman Republic, the citizens started wearing togas. Another difference is the Romans’ art. Their artworks are more realistic than the Greeks. The Romans’ human sculptures look like real people. They used marbles to sculpt public officials’ portraits. Their arts are usually use for political propaganda. The Romans treated women way better than the Greeks. Women had a little freedom during the Roman Republic. They could leave the house, go shopping or visit a temple, and talk to their neighbors without the need of their husbands’ permission.As time went on during the Roman Empire, the women were allowed to own property, run business, inherit wills, and more. However, the Greeks are very different from the Romans. In Greek mythology; there are 12 main gods. Some of the gods that belong to the 12 Olympians are Zeus, Poseidon, and Hera. In Greek mythology there are a lot of monsters. Minotaurs, centaurs, and chimera (a hybrid animal) are significant Greek monsters. There are two types of hybrid monsters, a hybrid of animals and a hybrid of people. Greek arts are idealistic, whereas the Romans are realistic.Greek arts are usually about the exploration of nature and philosophy. They portray the human bodies. They are perfectionists. Their architectural buildings are measured mathematically. Examples of the architectural building that used mathematical methods are the Parthenon and the Temple of Hera. Women in Greece, excluding Sparta, had no rights. They were treated as their husbands’ property Their husbands need to be aware of where they are and what they are doing. In order for the women to go ou t or talk to their visitors, they need their husbands’ consent. This treatment of women did not change as time went on.Other differences between the Greeks and the Romans are their advancements in science and technology. Romans were great engineers and builders. They built many bridges, roads, and other structures. Their engineering is influenced by the Etruscans. To maintain their bridges solid and long-lasting, they used Etruscans’ keystone arch. It was hard for them to keep their bridges stable, so they focused on improving the creation of cement. They use pozzolana concrete for the bridges’ piers, so the sand that is brought by the river currents will not ruin the base of the bridges.They were the first people who used concrete for building structures. Roads built by the Romans also helped them to unify their empire. All of the roads that they built lead to Rome. The creation of the aqueducts was one of the best inventions of the Romans. The aqueducts carry and distribute the water throughout the city of Rome. Aside from Roman technologies, the Romans also had advancements in science. Galen, who wrote a medical textbook during the Roman Empire, was the fist in identifying many symptoms and treatments for an illness.His books were used as a guide in medicine for at least a thousand year. On the other hand, some of Greece’s invention those were reinvented until the 20th century includes analog computers, vending machines, and showers. The analog computer was invented in 150 B. C. , but it was only use as a calculator, calendar, and as a GPS for navigation. The vending machine was used for holy water refill by inserting a coin. In 400 B. C. , the Greeks invented indoor showers. It was used in the gymnasium at Pergamum for female and male athletes to use.The Greeks also have science advancements. Aristotle, a Greek philosopher, opened The Lyceum. The Lyceum is a school where he observed how things come to live. He came up a procedur e for debating according to rules of logic. The scientific method we use today is based on Aristotle’s works and discoveries. Another person that contributed in Greek’s science is Hippocrates. Hippocrates is a Greek physician. He also described disease symptoms like Galen of Rome. He examined the human body to find out more about the illness the body consist.Hippocrates is well-known as â€Å"the father of modern medicine. † He also built a medical school on the island of Cos, Greece, where he was born. After his books about his medical teachings were published for Alexandria library, the people stopped believing that diseases and illnesses came from the gods as punishments; they learned that illness had a physical and rational explanation. His Hippocratic Oath had a great influence on the doctors today; they promise to be honest, to preserve life, and to keep information about their patients private.When choosing a civilization, it is hard because all of the ci vilizations does not have everything you want especially during this time period. The Romans and the Greeks are both great civilizations that have been growing over time. Both civilizations have success and failures of their own. The Romans had their outstanding legionary armies that helped them conquer many lands and put their civilizations to its height, but they also had a downfall when the generals decided to be greedy and fought each other for the thrown.Greece was also successful during the Athenian democracy because it brought many male citizens together, and they fought to protect their government. However, the opposing city-sate, which is Sparta, agreed changing their government to traditional dictatorship. Then it led to battle, but Athenians couldn’t defeat the Spartans, so it led to the fall of the Greek democracy. On the bright side, both civilizations found ways to resolve their problems. Rome and Greece are well-known because of their great achievements, and bo th are great influence on the lives of the people today.Standard: 9SS3: Students examine the antecedents, origins, development and achievements of the classical civilizations of Greece and Rome from 2000 B. C. E. to 500 C. E. 9Ec. 5: Compare works that express a universal theme and provide evidence to support the views expressed in each work. 9E2a. 5: Use writing to formulate clear research questions and to compile information from primary and secondary print or Internet sources. 9E2a. 6: Develop the main ideas within the body of the composition through supporting evidence, commonly held beliefs, hypotheses, and definitions.

Joan of England, Queen of Sicily

Joan of England, Queen of Sicily About Joan of England Known for: daughter of Eleanor of Aquitaine and Henry II of England, Joan of England lived through kidnapping and shipwreck Occupation: English princess, Sicilian queen Dates: October 1165 - September 4, 1199 Also known as: Joanna of Sicily More About Joan of England: Born in Anjou, Joan of England was the second youngest of the children of Eleanor of Aquitaine and Henry II of England. Joan was born in Angers, grew up mainly in Poitiers, at the Fontevrault Abbey, and at Winchester. In 1176, Joans father agreed to her marriage to William II of Sicily. As was typical for royal daughters, the marriage served political purposes, as Sicily was looking for a closer alliance with England.   Her beauty impressed the ambassadors, and she traveled to Sicily, with a stop in Naples when Joan became ill. They arrived in January, and William and Joan were married in Sicily in February of 1177. Their only son, Bohemond, did not survive infancy; the existence of this son is not accepted by some historians. When William died in 1189 without an heir to succeed him, the new king of Sicily, Tancred, denied Joan her lands, and then imprisoned Joan. Joans brother, Richard I, on his way to the Holy Land for a crusade, stopped in Italy to demand Joans release and the full repayment of her dowry. When Tancred resisted, Richard took a monastery, by force, and then took the city of Messina. It was there that Eleanor of Aquitaine landed with Richards chosen bride, Berengaria of Navarre. There were rumors that Philip II of France wanted to marry Joan; he visited her in the convent in which she was staying.   Philip was the son of her mothers first husband. This would likely have raised objections from the church because of that relationship.   Tancred returned Joans dowry in money rather than giving her control of her lands and property. Joan took charge of Berengaria while her mother returned to England.   Richard set sail for the Holy Land, with Joan and Berengaria on a second ship. The ship with the two women was stranded in Cyprus after a storm. Richard narrowly rescued his bride and sister from Isaac Comnenus. Richard imprisoned Isaac and sent his sister and his bride to Acre, following shortly. In the Holy Land, Richard proposed that Joan marry Saphadin, also known as Malik al-Adil, the brother of the Muslim leader, Saladin. Joan and the proposed groom both objected on the basis of their religious differences. Returning to Europe, Joan married Raymond VI of Toulouse. This, too, was a political alliance, as Joans brother Richard was concerned that Raymond had an interest in Aquitaine. Joan gave birth to a son, Raymond VII, who later succeeded his father. A daughter was born and died in 1198. Pregnant for another time and with her husband away, Joan barely escaped a rebellion on the part of the nobility. Because her brother Richard had just died, she could not seek his protection. Instead, she made her way to Rouen where she found support from her mother. Joan entered Fontevrault Abbey, where she died giving birth. She took the veil just before she died. The newborn son died a few days later. Joan was buried at Fontevrault Abbey. Background, Family: Mother:  Eleanor of AquitaineFather: Henry II of EnglandSiblings:full siblings were William IX, Count of Poitiers; Henry the Young King; Matilda, Duchess of Saxony; Richard I of England; Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany;  Eleanor, Queen of Castile; John of Englandolder half-siblings were  Marie of France  and  Alix of France Marriage, Children: husband: William II of Sicily (married February 13, 1177)child: Bohemond, Duke of Apulia: died in infancyhusband: Raymond VI of Toulouse (married October 1196)children: Raymond VII of Toulouse; Mary of Toulouse; Richard of Toulouse